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The Character of Korean Literature
Korean literature is usually divided chronologically into a
classical and a modern period. But the basis for such a division is still being
questioned. Great reforms swept Korea after the mid-19th century as its society
actively absorbed Western things.
Korea's classical literature developed against the backdrop of
traditional folk beliefs of the Korean people; it was also influenced by Taoism,
Confucianism, and Buddhism. Among these, Buddhist influence held the greatest
sway, followed by enormous influences from Confucianism - especially Song
Confucianism - during the Choson period.
Modern literature of Korea, on the other hand, developed out
of its contact with Western culture, following the course of modernization. Not
only Christian thought, but also various artistic trends and influences were
imported from the West. As the "New Education" and the "National
Language and Literature Movement" developed, the Chinese writing system,
which had traditionally represented the culture of the dominant class, lost the
socio-cultural function it had previously enjoyed. At the same time, the Korean
script, Han-gul was being used more and more
frequently, resulting in the growth and development of Korean language and
literature studies. With the advent of the "new novel" (shinsosol)
came a surge in novels written in the Korean script. Music and classical poetry,
formerly fused together in a kind of a song called ch'anggok, were now
viewed as separate endeavors. New paths opened up for the new literature. While
Korea was importing Western culture via Japan or China, it was also carrying out
literary reforms from within.
Linguistic expression and manner of transmission are issues of
utmost importance in the overall understanding of Korean literature. Korean
literature extends over a broad territory: literature recorded in Chinese; and
literature written in Han-gul. These two
aspects of Korean literature greatly differ from each other in terms of their
literary forms and character.
Korean literature in Chinese was created when Chinese
characters were brought to Korea. Because Chinese characters are a Chinese
invention, there have been times in Korea's history when efforts were made to
exclude literature written in Chinese from the parameters of what constitutes
Korean literature. But in the Koryo and Choson
cultures, Chinese letters were central to Koreans' daily lives. We also cannot
overlook the fact that the literary activity of the dominant class was conducted
in Chinese. While Chinese-centered ideas and values are contained in this
literature - a feature shared by most of East Asia during this period - they
also contain experiences and thought patterns that express the unique way of
life of the Korean people.
The use of the Korean script began during the Choson
period with the creation of the Korean alphabet (Hunmin Chong-um).
The creation of the Korean alphabet in the 15th century was a crucial turning
point in Korea's literary history. Compared with the literature written in
Chinese which was dominated by the upper classes, Korean script made possible
the broadening of the literary field to include women and commoners. This
expanded the social base of Korean writers and readers alike. The Korean script
(Han-gul) assumed its place of leading
importance in Korean literature only during the latter half of the 19th century.
After the Enlightenment period, the use of Chinese letters swiftly declined and
the popularity of Korean letters greatly increased. As soon as the linguistic
duality of "Chinese" and "Native" within Korean life was
overcome, literature in the Korean script became the foundation upon which the
national literature developed.
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Korea's Classical Literature
Hyangga from the Shilla period
The Hyangga poetry of the Shilla period signaled the
beginning of a unique poetic form in Korean literature. The Hyangga were
recorded in the hyangch'al script, in which the Korean language was
written using "sound" (um) and
"meaning" (hun) of Chinese characters. Fourteen poems in the Hyangga
style from the Shilla period have been preserved in the Samguk yusa
(Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms). This poetic form was passed down to the
Koryo Dynasty, and 11 poems from that period are
preserved in the Kyunyojon
(Tales of Kyunyo). Observing the form of the extant
poems, we see a variety of formal characteristics: 4-line, 8-line, and 10-line
poems. The 4 line poems have the character of folk ballads or nursery songs. The
10-line poems, with the most developed poetic structure, are divided into three
sections of 4-4-2.
It is difficult to make general determinations about the
personalities of the Hyangga poets. But it is thought that the 4-line
poems with their ballad-like attributes may indicate that the poets came from a
broad range of backgrounds. Most of the 10-line poems were written by priests
like Ch'ung Tamsa, Wol Myongsa, Yung Ch'sonsa,
Yongjae and Kyunyo; they were also composed by the Hwarang
("flower warriors"), including Duk Ogok and Shin Chung. These warriors
were the backbone of the Shilla aristocracy. The 10-line poems reflect the
emotions of the aristocrats and their religious consciousness. From among the Hyangga,
Sodong-yo (The Ballad of Sodong)
is characterized by its simple naivet'e; the Chemangmaega (Song of
Offerings to a Deceased Sister) and Ch'an-gip'arangga (Song in
Praise of Kip'arang) boast a superb epic technique, and give fine expression to
a sublime poetic spirit. These examples are accordingly recognized as the most
representative of Hyangga poetry.
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The Koryo Kayo
(Koryo
Songs)
The literature of the Koryo period
is marked by an increased use of Chinese letters, the disappearance of Hyangga,
and the emergence of Koryo kayo (Koryo
songs) which continued to be transmitted as oral literature until the Choson
period. The transmission of the Hyangga literature of Shilla was
continued until the early part of Koryo but, as in
the eleven verses of Kyunyo's Pohyon
shipchung wonwangga (Songs of the Ten Vows of Samantabhadra), these were
mostly religious prayers with no secular or artistic flavor.
The new poetic form introduced by writers of the Koryo
period was the Koryo kayo called pyolgok.
The identities of most of the Koryo kayo
authors are unknown. The songs were orally transmitted; only later in the Choson
period were they recorded using the Korean script (Han-gul).
This poetry has two forms: the "short-stanza form" (tallyonch'e)
in which the entire work is structured into a single stanza; and the
"extended form" (yonjangch'e) in
which the work is separated into many stanzas. Chong
Kwajonggok (The Song of Chong Kwajong) and Samogok (Song of Maternal Love)
are examples of the short-stanza form, but the more representative Koryo
kayo, including Ch'nongsan pyolgok
(Song of Green Mountain), Sogyong
pyolgok (Song of the Western Capital [P'yongyang]), Tongdong and Ssanghwajom
(Twin Flower Shops), are all written in the extended form, and divided into
anywhere from four to thirteen stanzas.
The Koryo Kayo are
characterized by increased length and a free and undisciplined form. The bold,
direct nature of the songs make them distinctive. They deal with the real world
of humankind. But because the songs were transmitted orally over a long period
and recorded only after the beginning of the Choson
period, there is a strong possibility that they have been partially altered.
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Shijo and Kasa
The creation of the Korean alphabet in the early Choson
period was one of the turning points in the history of Korean literature. In the
process of creating the Korean alphabet (Han-gul)
and investigating its practicality, akchang (musical scores) were written
in the Korean script, such as Yongbioch'bon-ga
(Songs of Flying Dragons Through the Heavens) which celebrates the
foundation of the Choson Dynasty(1392-1910), and
which is complete with musical notation and instrumentation. These were written
by the Hall of Worthies (Chiphyonjon)
scholars who served the court officials. King Sejong also wrote Worin
Ch'on-gangjigok (Songs of the Moon Lighting the Rivers of the Earth), a
compilation in song of the life history of the Sakyamuni (Gautama
Buddha), extolling praise for the Buddha's grace. These series of poems were
written in forms that had not existed in previous ages. They provided a great
stimulus in the development of poetic literature.
The shijo ("current tune") is representative
of Choson period poetry. Its poetic form was
established in the late Koryo period, but it
flourished to a greater extent under the Choson
period's new leading ideology, Song Neo-Confucianism. The fact that a majority
of the shijo poets were well versed in Confucianism, and that these poems
of the late Koryo and early Choson
periods for the most part dealt with the theme of loyalty, helps us to
understand the historical function of the shijo.
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The shijo has a simple, three-stanza structure: first,
middle and last. Its three-stanza form is related to the structure of its poetic
meaning, a fundamental requisite which prescribes its formal aesthetic. It is
constructed in four feet, with each line containing three-to-four syllables, to
make a total of about 12 feet. It is characterized by moderation in form and a
slow, leisurely elegance. Despite its formal simplicity, its expressions are
poetic and the poems achieve an esthetic wholeness. To this end, we may suppose
that the shijo was widely loved by both the commoners and the yangban(gentry)
class.
Centered around such authors as Maeng Sa-song,
Yi Hyon-bo, Yi Hwang and Yi I, the shijo of
the early Choson period represented "natural
literature," or kangho kayo, in which Confucian ideals were
expressed using themes from nature. Following the style of Chong Ch'iol, Yun Son-do and
others, the greatest shijo poets of their time, there emerged in the
later Choson period poets like Kim Ch'mon-t'aek
and Kim Su-jang who paved the way for the creation of new kind of poetry which
incorporated elements of satire and humor. Collections of shijo were also
compiled, such as Ch'eonggu yong-on
(Enduring Poetry of Korea) by Kim Ch' on-t'aek and Haedong
kayo (Songs of Korea) by Kim Su-jang.
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In the late Choson period, sasol
shijo ("current tunes explained in words") were developed to give
simple form to the unaffected emotions of the commoners. The sasol
shijo departs from the form of the original three-stanza p'yong
("flat") shijo, in which the middle and final stanzas are
arranged into four feet, and is characterized by increased length. Hence, the sasol
shijo is also called the changhyong
("long form") shijo.
The sasol shijo is distinct
from the moderate from of the p'yong shijo in
that it pursues a free and undisciplined form, and expresses the joys and
sorrows of the commoners, as well as satirizes reality, making it comical.
It is said that the kasa and the shijo make up
the two greatest forms of the Choson period poetry.
The kasa is properly placed in the category of verse, but its content is
not limited to the expression of individual sentiment. It often includes moral
admonitions, and the subjects regarding "the weariness of travel" and
"grief." The kasa form is a simple verse form, with a
"twin" set of feet of three to four syllables each, which are repeated
four times. Because of the varying nature of its contents, there are some who
view the kasa as a kind of essay, as in early Choson
period kasa like Chong Kuk-in's
Sangch'un-gok (Tune in Praise of Spring); Song Sun's Myonangjongga
(Song of Myonangjong
Pavilion); and Chong Ch'iol's
Kwandong pyolgok (Song of Kwandong), Samiin-gok
(Song in Recollections of a Beautiful Woman) and Songsan
pyolgok (Song of Mt. Songsan),
and so on. These kasa have, as their main subject matter, the following
themes: contemplation of nature for spiritual enlightenment; the virtues of the
great gentleman who espouses anbin nakto (being content in poverty and
delighting in following the Way); and the metaphor of love between a man and a
woman to express loyalty between sovereign and subject. Later, following Pak Il-lo's Sonsangt'an (Lament on Shipboard) and
Nuhangsa (Words of the Streets), we find in the late Koryo
period kasa themes like "travel abroad" as in Kim In-gyom's
Iltong chang-yuga (Song of a Glorious Voyage to the East of the Sun) and
Hong Sun-hak's Yonhaengga. Also, there were
the naebang kasa (kasa of the women's quarters) written by women.
These gained wide popularity. In particular, the kasa of the latter
period underwent changes in form, becoming both longer and prosaic.
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The Classical Fiction
The first appearance of the classical fiction in Korea include
Kim Shi-sup's Kumo
shinhwa (Tales of Kumo) which was written in
Chinese characters and Ho Kyun's Hong Kil-tong chon
(Tale of Hong Kil-tong) written in Han-gul.
After the turn of the 17th century, fictions like tale of Kumo
shinhwa came to be even more actively produced, and a large-scale readership
was formed at that time. Especially popular was the p'ansori
(story-in-song), which appeared in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. A
performance art, the p'ansori is rooted in heightened musical
expressiveness. As its contents were "fictionalized" it also made
great contributions to the development of the classical fiction. In the 18th and
19th centuries, the quality of these classical fictions increased in variety as
well as in quantity. Also, book rental business thrived with the advent of
commercial publishing .
The characters appearing in Kumo
shinhwa embody the concept of chaejagain ("talented young man
and beautiful woman"). It also employs to an extreme degree the style of
aesthetic expression used in Chinese letters. Along with these characteristics, Kumo
shinhwa also shows aspects of the mysterious fiction (chon-gisosol)
in that its contents are of a mysterious nature and distant from reality. In the
mid-Choson period, works with parable-like
characteristics were published, such as Im Je's Susongji
(Record of Grief) and Yun Kye-son's Talch'on mongnyurok (Record of a
Dream Adventure to Talch'on). But with the coming of the late Choson
period, authors like Pak Chi-won and Yi EOk wrote
realistic fictions in Chinese. Pak Chi-won's Hosaengjon
(The Tale of Scholar Ho), Yangbanjon
(A Yangban Tale), Hojil (The Tiger's Roar) and Yi's Shimsaengjon
(Tale of Scholar Shim), for example, all depart from the orthodox conventions of
classical Chinese literary studies and introduce a variety of characters such as
merchants, men of wealth, thieves and kisaeng (female entertainers). They
are sharply critical of a manifold social problems and often ridicule various
aspects of daily life. This kind of fiction, together with the fiction in Han-gul
of the later Choson period, opened up new paths for
fiction writing.
After the creation of the Korean alphabet, an abundance of
fictions were written in Han-gul, beginning
with Ho Kyun's Hong Kil-tong chon
and including works like Kim Man-jung's Kuunmong (Dream of the Nine
Clouds) and Sassi namjonggi (Record of Lady
Sa's Southward Journey). Hong Kil-tong chon strongly
opposes the ruling class' discrimination of children born of the union between a
yangban and a concubine. It shows a high level of social concern and
criticizes the absurd aspects of the everyday reality of the times.
In the late Choson period, the p'ansori
fiction (p'ansori gye sosol) emerged,
based on the orally transmitted art form. P'ansori fictions like
Ch'unhyangjon (Tale of Ch'un-hyang), Shimch'oongjon
(Tale of Shimch'yong), and Hungbujon
(Tale of Hungbu) do not deal with superhuman
characters, but make use of human stereotypes of the period. Most of these
fictions center around casual relationships from real-life experience, rather
than coincidence. In addition to being a mixture of verse and prose, the writing
style also combines refined classical language and the vigorous slang and
witticisms of the common people. Throughout these works, we are given a broad
picture of the social life of the late Choson
period. In addition to these works, other Choson
period fictions record the private affairs of the court, such as Inhyon
Wanghujon (Tale of Queen Inhyon)
and Hanjungnok (Record of Leisurely Feelings).
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The Modern Literature of Korea
The Literature of the Enlightenment Period
Korean modern literature was formed against the background of
the crumbling feudalistic society of the Choson
Dynasty, the importation of new ideas from the West, and the new political
reality of rising Japanese imperial power in East Asia. The first stage in the
establishment of Korea's modern literature extends from the mid-19th century to
the early 20th century, and is designated as the literature of the Enlightenment
(kaehwa kyemong) period.
The change from traditional to modern literature during the
Enlightenment period was largely due to the effects of the New Education and the
Korean Language and Literature movement. After the Kabo Reforms of 1894,
a new brand of education was enforced, new Western-style schools were
established, and new textbooks for teaching Western knowledge were published.
The literature of the Enlightenment Period secured its social base through newly
emerged media like newspapers. Most newspapers, including the Tongnip Shinmun
(The Independent), Hwangsong Shinmun (The
Imperial City Newspaper), Taehan maeil Shinbo (Korean Daily News), Cheguk
Shinmun (Imperial Newspaper), Mansebo (The Forever Report), Taehan
minbo (The Korean People's Report) all published serial novels, as well as shijo,
and kasa. It was at this time that a class of professional writers also
began to form. Commercial publishing of literary works became possible with the
introduction of new printing techniques and the emergence of publishing
companies.
In this period, the ch'angga (new type of song) and the
shinch'eshi (new poetry) were hailed as the new poetic forms. They
contributed greatly to the formation of the modern chayushi (free verse
poem). Receiving their influence from free verse poetry, the shinch'eshi
abandoned the fixed meter of traditional poetry, thus making new genres possible
in poems like Ch'oe Nam-son's Hae egeso
sonyon ege (From the Sea to the Youth) (1908), Kkot
tugo (Laying Down the Flowers) and T'aebaeksan shi (Poems of Mt.
T'aebaeksan). But despite the novelty of the new forms, there were also many
instances where the poetic voice was politicized, a sharp contrast to the lyric
poetry of old, which gave primary expression to individual sentiment and
feeling.
This period also saw the emergence of many biographical works
based on enlightenment tastes, designed to cultivate patriotism and awaken the
national consciousness. Representative works include, Aeguk puinjon
(Tale of the Patriotic Lady) (Chang Ji-yon,
1907) and Elchi Mundok
(Shin Ch'ae-ho, 1908). The biographies presented images of the kind of hero
called for by the realities of the period. An Kuk-son's
Kumsu hoeuirok (Notes
From the Meeting of the Birds and Beasts) (1908) is the representative of this
kind of work: it centers around the orations of animals who criticize the human
world's moral depravity.
While a professional class of writers began to be formed by
men like Yi In-jik, Yi Hae-cho, Ch'oe Ch'an-shik and Kim Ko-je, a new literary
form called the shinsosol (new novel) secured
a popular readership base. Yi In-jik's Hyoluinu
(Tears of Blood) (1906) and Ensegye (The
Silver World) (1908), were followed by Yi Hae-cho's Kumagom
(The Demon-Ousting Sword) and Chayujong (The Freedom Bell). Ch'oe
Ch'an-shik's Ch'uwolsaek (The Color of the Autumn Moon) (1912) is also a
well-known work. The shinsosol, all written
in Han-gul, achieved mass popularity. These
novels portrayed Enlightenment ideals against the background of the realities of
contemporary life, and the unrealistic, transcendental worlds of old are not
found in their plots. It was in the shinsosol
that "time reversal" was first applied as a structural technique. The
authors also adopted a vernacular prose style that brought them closer to the
form of the modern novel. However, in the wake of the Japanese takeover of Korea
in 1910, the character of the shinsosol began
to change. The later works gave more weight to the fates of individual
characters, and commonplace love-struggles became more prominent.
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Literature of the Japanese Colonial Period
Korea suffered a great deal under Japanese colonial rule
(1910-1945). Coercing the Korean government to conclude the Korean-Japanese
Annexation Treaty, Japan then installed a Governor-General in Korea and enforced
military rule. Restrictions governing speech and publications were especially
severe. As a result, Korea's spirit of self-reliance and independence, together
with its will to proceed with the Enlightenment ideals, no longer could find
expression in its literature.
The Korean literature of the Japanese colonial period began
with the March First Independence Movement of 1919. It was during this period
that the Korean people began to exhibit a more positive attitude in coping with
their national situation. Strengthened by feelings of national self-awakening
which had been stirred up by the March First Independence Movement of 1919, the
literature of that period began to show an interest in themes of self-discovery
and individual expression, as well as an increased interest in concrete reality.
Literary coterie magazines emerged, like Ch'angjo (Creation) (1919), P'yeho
(The Ruins) (1920), and Paekcho (White Tide) (1922), and literary circles
formed. With the publication of magazines like Kaebyok
(The Opening) (1920), creative literary efforts also began to become more
actively developed. In particular, the publication of national newspapers, like
the Dong-A Ilbo and the Chosun Ilbo, contributed toward
establishing a broad base of support for artistic endeavors.
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In the early 1920s, the base support for Korea's modern
literature began to expand as people experienced a renewed self-awakening and
recognition of their national predicaments in the wake of the March 1919
uprising. The novels of this period describe the sufferings of the intellectual
who drifts through reality, and expose the pathetic lives of the laborers and
farmers. Yi Kwang-su's short story Sonyonui
piae (The Sorrow of Youth) in which he writes of the inner pain of the
individual, was followed by his full-length novel Mujong
(Heartlessness) (1917), the success of which placed him at the center of Korean
letters. Mujong was not thoroughgoing in its
apprehension of colonial period reality, but as a novel combining the fatalistic
life of the individual with the Zeitgeist of the period, it is recognized
as being modern in character. With Paettaragi (Following the Boat) (1921)
and Kamja (Potatoes) (1925), Kim Tong-in also contributed greatly to the
short-story genre. In it, he minutely describes in realistic detail the shifting
fates of man. Hyon Chin-gon's
Unsu choun nal (The Lucky Day) (1924) is also
a work which employs superb technique in describing people coping with the pain
of their reality. Yom Sang-sop's
P'yobonshilui ch'nonggaeguri
(Green Frog in the Specimen Gallery) (1921) deals again with the wanderings and
frustrations of the intellectual; and in Mansejon
(The Tale of Forever) (1924), Yom gives
expression to the colonial realities of a devastated Korea.
The poetry of this period also established a new and modern
Korean poetry as it borrowed from the French techniques of vers libre.
Both the free verse of Chu Yo-han's Pullori (Fireworks) (1919) and Kim
So-wol's poetry collection Chindallae kkot (Azaleas) (1925) made
enormous contributions toward establishing the foundations of modern Korean
poetry. Kim reconstructed the meter of the traditional folk ballad, successfully
giving poetic shape to a world of sentiment. Yi Sang-hwa, in his works entitled Madonna
(Madonna) and Ppaeatkin Turedo pomun
onun-ga (Does Spring Come to Those Who Have Been
Plundered?), attempted to come to terms with the suffering of the age and the
agony of the individual, through the poetic recognition of the realities of
colonialism. Based on Buddhist thought, Han Yong-un, in his Nimui
ch'immuk (Thy Silence) (1926) sang of "Thou" as an absolute
existence, and tragically compared the reality of Koreans' loss of their nation
to that of the loss suffered by a woman who must endure the separation of her
loved one or husband.
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In the mid-1920s, Korean literature was divided into national
and class literatures, in accordance with the democratic and socialist ideals
that were popular that time. By 1925 the class literature movement began to
solidify with the organization of the Korea Proletarian Artist's Federation (KAPF). The proletarian literature movement, by expanding its organization and
targeting the elevation of class consciousness through literature, sought to
strengthen class ideology in society. In order to achieve mass support from the
farmers and laborers, it poured its energies into the creation of a "labor
literature" and a "farmer literature." Most notable of this kind
of novel include Ch'oe So-hae's T'alch'ulgi (Record of an Escape) (1925),
Cho Myong-hui's Naktonggang
(The Naktonggang river) (1927), Yi Ki-yong's Kohyang
(Hometown) (1934), and Han Sol-ya's Hwanghon
(Twilight). These works are for the most part based in class consciousness and
emphasize the struggles against colonialism, with farmers and laborers playing
the central protagonists in that struggle. In the case of poetry, Pak Se-yong,
Im Hwa and Kim Ch'ang-sul all took aim at the class contradictions under
colonialism and published many "tendency poems" (kyonghyangshi)
emphasizing the consciousness of class struggle.
During the 1930s, Korean literature underwent important
changes as Japanese militarism was strengthened and ideological coercion began
to be applied to literature. Pursuit of the communal ideology, which until that
point had formed the course of Korean literature, became a thing of the past.
New and various literary trends began to emerge.
Many novels written during this period experimented with new
styles and techniques. In Nalgae (Wings) and Chongsaenggi (Record
of the End of a Life), for example, Yi Sang used the technique of dissociation
of the self from the world around him. Yi Hyo-sok's Memilkkot
p'il muryop (When the Buckwheat Flowers Bloom)
and Kim Yu-jong's Tongbaek kkot (Camellia
Blossoms) are counted as masterful works of this genre. Also, Pak T'ae-won's Sosolga
Kubossiui Iril (Days of Kubo the Novelist)
(1934) and Yi T'ae-jun's Kkamagwi (The Crow) (1936) opened up new vistas
for the novel with their new stylistic sensibilities. In these novels,
novelistic space grows from within the interior of the self. By contrast, the
full length novels of Yom Sang-sop's
Samdae (The Three Generations) (1931), Pak T'ae-won's Ch'eonbyon
p'unggyong (Views by the Riverside) (1937),
Ch'ae Man-shik's T'angnyu (The Muddy Stream) (1938), and Hong Myong-hui's
Im Kkok-chong chon
(Tale of Im Kkok-chong)
(1939), all narrate the story of the lives of their characters against the
backdrop of Korea's tumultuous history.
The modernism movement is the most impressive feature of the
poetry of this period. It emerged as sunsushi (pure poetry). The
pioneering poems of Chong Chi-yong and Kim Yong-nang
embody poetic lyricism through intricate linguistic sensibility and refined
technique. Yi Sang, in particular, played a central role in the development of
this new kind of experimental poetry. Also, aligned with this movement was the
so-called Saengmyongp'a (the life poets)
movement which included writers like So Chong-ju and Yu Ch'i-hwan. Another
significant trend during this period was the nature-poems of Pak Tu-jin and Pak
Mok-wol, among others. The poetry of Yi Yuk-sa and Yun Dong-ju was also
important in that it captured the emotion of the people in their resistance to
Japanese imperialism.
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Literature of the Period of National Division
After the liberation from the Japanese in 1945, Korea became
embroiled in the political maneuvers of the World Powers, and the division into
South and North became unavoidable. This division in political thought also made
a significant impact on the literary world, as the factionalism and struggles
began to occur between Southern and Northern literatures. The Korean
War(1950-1953) was a tragic interim which solidified Korea's division into South
and North. Postwar Korean society's emergence from the wounds and chaos of that
war had a considerable impact on the development of Korean literature.
For the most part, the postwar novel in South Korea deals with
the struggles of the Korean people to achieve deliverance from their national
pain and anguish. The writings of Kim Tong-ri and Hwang Sun-won are
representatives of this new type of literature. Also included in this genre is
An Su-kil, whose novel Pukkando (1959) portrays the pioneering fortitude
and steadfast spiritual power of Koreans who migrate to Manchuria. In addition,
many of the postwar generation writers took as their predominant theme the
collapse of the traditional socio-moral value systems, as seen in Oh Sang-won's Moban
(Revolt) (1957) and Son Ch'ang-sop's Injo in-gan
(Artificial Man) (1958). Pak Kyong-ri's Pulshin
shidae (The Age of Mistrust) (1957), Chong
Kwang-yong's Kkoppittan Li (Captain Lee) (1962) and Yi Bom-son's
Obalt'an (A Bullet Misfired), in particular, deal squarely with the chaos
and moral collapse of postwar society. Yi Ho-ch'iol's
Nasang (The Nude Portrait) (1957) and Ch'oe Sang-gyu's P'oint'du
(Point) (1956) describe people living their lives in a veritable pit of bleak
reality.
The search for a new poetic spirit and technique was also a
significant feature of Korea's postwar poetry. Among the postwar trends was the Chont'ongp'a
(traditionalists), movement, marked by a style rooted in traditional rhythms and
folk sentiment. The centrality of individual sentiment and sensibility in the Chont'ongp'a,
combined with the traditional rhythmic base, brought a broad, folkish sentiment
into the realm of poetry. In addition to Pak Jae-sam, whose P'iri (Flute)
and Ulum i t'anun
kang (The Saddened River) was inspired by the world of traditional sentiment
and folk feeling, Ku Ja-un, Yi Tong-ju and Chong
Han-mo were also significant contributors to this movement. Another trend in
postwar poetry was the Shilhomp'a
(experientialists) who, while venturing to bring new experiences to poetic
language and form, concentrated on changing the tradition. Kim Kyong-rin,
Pak In-hwan, Kim Kyu-dong, Kim Ch'a-yong and Yi Pong-rae, as well as a coterie
of writers called the Huban-gi (The Later Years), were central to this
new postwar modernist movement. In particular, Pak Pong-u and Chon Pong-gon, brought critical recognition and a
satirical approach to social conditions through poetry.
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At the close of the 1950s, writers like Kim Sung-ok,
Pak T'ae-sun, So Jong-in, Yi Ch'song-jun,
Hong Song-won and Ch'oe In-hun made their literary
debut. Ch'oe In-hun's Kwangjang (The Square), for example, gave
expression to the agony, wanderings and frustrations of the intellectual using a
unique novelistic structure. Kim Sung-ok, in his Seoul
1964, Kyoul (Seoul, 1964, Winter), wrote about
the life of the petit bourgeois.
Shortly after the April 19th Revolution of 1960, poetic trends
also changed. Poets like Shin Tong-yop and Kim Su-yong emphatically rejected the sentimental escapism of the postwar period and
began to advocate the necessity to engage its readership with the political
reality of the times. Kim Su-yong's Tallara Cui
changnan (The Prank of the Moonland) (1959) and Shin Tong-yop's
long poem Kumgang (The Kumgang
river) (1967) for example, both express this new realistic sensibility by
advocating the view that poetry become a significant means for political
expression.
During the 1970s, Korean society found itself in the throes of
rapid industrialization in which the gap between the rich and the poor, as well
as regional disparities in industrial development, became markedly visible. As
the political angst among the people increased, a new anti-establishment
literary movement exploded onto the scene. The most important characteristic of
the Korean novel during this period was its positive concern for various social
problems which began to appear during the industrialization process. Yi Mun-gu's
Kwanch'on sup'il (Kwanch'on Essays) (1977), for example, portrays the
actual conditions of farmers who were neglected and became impoverished in the
midst of the industrial development of the nation. The lifestyles of Seoul's
"border citizens" (those living in the outskirts of the city) and the
labor scene were also vividly portrayed in Hwang Sok-yong's
Kaekchi (The Strange Land) (1970) and Samp'o kanun
kil (The Road to Samp'o) and Cho Se-hui's Nanjang-iga
ssoa ollin chagun kong (Small Ball Thrown by a
Dwarf) (1978). Clearly, these novels opened up new possibilities for the
"labor" novel as they gave new expression to the depravities and
sufferings borne by the lives of the laborers in Korea during this period in
history. Yi Ch'Song-jun's Tangshindul
Cui ch'ion-guk (Your
Heaven) (1976), Chaninhan toshi (The Cruel City) (1978) and O jong-hui's
Yunyon Cui ttul
(The Garden of Childhood) (1981), all examine the theme of human isolation
and alienation which marked these laborers' experiences of industrial
development. The social satire apparent throughtout Pak Wan-so's Hwich'aonggorinun
ohu (The Reeling Afternoon) (1977) and Ch'oe Il-lam's T'aryong
(The Tune) (1977) are representative of important tendencies in the novel of
this period.
There also emerged during this period what has been referred
to as the "division novel" (pundansosol)
which brought to the fore a critical examination of national division. Kim Won-il's Noul (Sunset)(1978), Chon
Sang-guk's Abeui kajok (Abe's Family) (1980)
and Cho Jong-rae's T'aebaeksanmaek (The
T'aebaeksan Mountains) are representative of this new type of novel. Also
noteworthy is the roman-fleuve, like Pak Kyong-ri's T'oji(The
Land), judged to be one of the most important achievements of modern Korean
literature.
In the realm of poetry, the works which centered around the
experiences of the minjung (roughly translated "oppressed
people" or "oppressed masses") most clearly defined the poetic
trends of the times. Shin Kyong-rim's Nongmu (Farmer's
Dance) (1973) and Ko EUn's Munui
maule kaso (Going to
Munui Village) (1974), for example, both clearly
demonstrate this concern for the lives of the minjung (people). Kim Chi-ha's T'anun mongmarum
uro (Towards a Thirst) (1982), in particular,
gave expression to the fighting spirit of the minjung in its struggle
against industrial exploitation.
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The Translation of Korean Literature in Foreign Languages
Korean literature was largely unknown to the world until the
1980s, when translations of Korean literary works began to appear in foreign
countries. Since then, the types of works selected for translation have become
increasingly diverse, and the quality of the translations themselves have
improved steadily. Furthermore, as the translations principally are being
published by overseas publishers, the translations have became available to a
wider reading public.
Since the 1980s, Korean literature in English translation has
spread widely in the English-speaking countries. Anthologies of Korean modern
short stories such as Flowers of Fire (Peter H. Lee, University of Hawaii
Press, 1974); and Land of Exile (Marshall R. Pihl and Bruce Fulton, New
York: M.E.Sharpe, 1993) are widely used as textbooks in universities all across
the English-speaking world.
The Korean novelists whose works have been most widely
translated are Hwang Sun-won and Kim Tong-ri. Hwang's novel Umjiginun
song (The Moving Castle) was translated in the
United States by Bruce Fulton. Other works, including Collected Short Stories
by Hwang Sun-won translated by Edward Poitras, and another similar
collection by Professor Holman, have also been available in English. Important
works by Kim Tong-ri such as Elhwa (Eulhwa,
The Shaman Sorceress), Munyodo (The Portrait
of the Shaman) have been translated and published. Poetry selections by Han
Yong-un (Your Silence), So chong-ju(Winter Sky) and Hwang Dong-gyu
(Wind Berial) can also be found in English translation.
In francophone countries, the scope of literary translation
activities from Korean is limited compared to those in English-speaking
countries; but in these countries too, projects are actively underway. Yi Mun-yol
has had their greatest overseas exposure through French translations. Translated
works by Yi Mun-yol include Uridurui
ilgurojin yongung
(Notre Heros Defigure) and Shiin (Le Poete) . Other Korean novels
available in French are Cho Se-hui's Nanjang-iga
ssoa ollin chagun kong (La petite Balle Lancee
par un Nain). Translations of poetry by individual authors include those of Han
Yong-un and Gu Sang. Such translation projects will continue in the future in an
ongoing effort to introduce Korean literature to readers throughout the world
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